History Technology 20th Century Essay Example for Free

History Technology 20th Century Essay The role of technology played a huge part in developing our way of life today as we exist. The technology field developed quickly in the span of the 20th century. We had communication technology, transportation technology and the technology that contributed to the advancement of modern science. These all contributed to a better way of living and enhancing our quality of life throughout the 20th century and it continues today. Communications technology played an important part in our evolving culture in the 20th century. Radio, radar, and early sound recording were key technologies that paved the way for the development of the telephone, fax machine and the storage of data. The way we communicate with others is a great tool for our society to evolve and communicate with one another. This helped with the way we developed our relationships with our countries as well by providing a quick way to speak to someone or find someone that is a half way around the world. This technology also helped our economy by providing an important avenue for the way we can do business. We can hold conference calls with multiple parties that were not thought of before. The personal computer was developed in the 1980’s as well as cell phones. The public use Internet was introduced in the 1990’s. With these technologies it gave businesses a chance to enhance productivity and increase our economy and provide us a better quality of life. Transportation technology had a significant impact on our quality of life and the way we become mobile. The combination of the ability to travel by air and automobile allowed people to have unprecedented personal mobility that they did not have before. One of the most notable technologies in the area of transportation came with the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union. This gave a peaceful outlet for political and military tensions of the Cold War. This lead to the first human spaceflight with the Soviet Union’s mission in 1961 and man’s first landing on the moon in 1969. The first space station was launched by the Soviet space program. The United States developed the first reusable spacecraft system with the Space Shuttle program. It was first launched in 1981. The technology that lead to the evolution of the space program for human space travel also allowed for orbiting space probes that have been developed to work with our communication technologies to not only protect us but provide further exploration in the future. The advancement of medicine has allowed us to live longer more productive lives. Antibiotics was developed that drastically reduced mortality from bacterial diseases. Vaccines were developed to protect us from epidemics that caused death. X-rays became a powerful tool to diagnose diseases and broken bones. Imaging was developed to help doctors find better ways to treat individuals. All of the medical advancements from the 20th century have provided our morality to increase not only in adults but young people who did not have the chance at life as they do today. Vietnam War Outcome/Results The war that I choose to discuss is the Vietnam War. This war was a prolonged struggle between nationalist’s forces that were attempting to unify the country of Vietnam under a communist government. The United States was trying to prevent the spread of communism. Many people viewed this war as a no win war. The United States leaders had lost the American public’s support for the war. What many people did not realize is that there had been fighting in Vietnam long before the Vietnam War began. The Vietnamese people had suffered under French colonial rule for over six decades. Japan had invaded many parts of Vietnam which brought the Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh back to his country after traveling around the world. He established the Viet Minh. Their goal was to get rid of the French and Japanese people that occupied their land. The French were not willing to give up their colony and fought back. Ho Chi Minh had tried for years to get the United States to support him against the French. He even supplied the United States with military intelligence about the Japanese during World War II. The United States decided to help the French for fear that the country would become a communist country. Viet Cong was established by communist sympathizers in South Vietnam to use guerilla warfare against the South Vietnamese. The United States sent advisors to South Vietnam but the North Vietnamese fired directly upon two U. S. Ships in international waters. This resulted in a resolution that the Congress issued that gave the President authority to escalate the United States involvement in Vietnam. The President’s goal was not for the United States to win but to bolster South Vietnam’s defenses until South Vietnam could take over. Because the United States entered into this war without a goal, President Johnson set the stage for the public and troop disappointment when the United States was in a stalemate with the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong. The U. S. troops fought the war in the jungle where the Viet Cong were very well supplied and set booby traps for the U. S. troops. This became a difficult war to fight for the Americans. The U.S. troops became frustrated at the conditions they were forced to be in that many became angry and some used drugs to cope. The surprise attack that the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong organized against the South Vietnamese cities and towns was the turning point. This proved to the Americans that the enemy was stronger and organized better than they thought. As news spread to the U. S., the American public was unhappy so the President decided that he would not escalate the war any longer. Newly appointed President Nixon wanted nothing more than to end the war. He began the process of withdrawing troops in 1969 and expanded the war to other countries. This move created protests throughout America. The President worked toward a peaceful solution and peace talks began. The cease fire did not happen until 1973 and the last U. S. troops left Vietnam in March 1973. Even though the United States had withdrawn it’s troops, the fighting continued in Vietnam. Finally, South Vietnam officially surrendered to North Vietnam on April 30, 1975. The United States was trying to prevent the spread of communism when ultimately; Vietnam was reunited as a communist country in 1976. This was a war the United States should have never been involved in but the government thought otherwise. [Insert Paper Title Here] [Insert introductory text here] Paper should be printed on 8.5 X 11 inch white paper. Entire paper should be double-spaced. The paper should be clean. The printer should produce letters that are dark enough and clear enough to be easily read. Margins should be 1 inch at the top, bottom, left, and right of every page. Do not justify the right margin, instead leave it ragged by using left justify. Use Times Roman using font size of 12. Type no more than 27 lines of text on each page (not counting the header at the top of the page). References

The Republic Of The Philippines History Essay

The Republic Of The Philippines History Essay The Republic of the Philippines has a long and colorful history with influences from numerous countries. It is primarily comprised of Roman Catholics in the north and Muslims, which are the minority, in the south. The Muslims desire an independent Islamic state because they feel the government of the Philippines treats them as inferior. As their core grievances are ignored, the Muslims resort to terrorist activities. The U.S. has identified them as threats to the Republic of the Philippines as well as U.S. interests. This paper identifies the internal threats, analyzes the situation and discusses recommended solutions to counter these terrorist organizations. Breeding Ground in the Philippines The southern Philippines have long been a breeding ground for terrorist activity (Bhattacharji, 2009). This is due to poverty, a lack of education as well as a lack of support from their local government. The Philippine government gained their independence in 1946 and has experienced numerous armed confrontations since. The United States (U.S.) has identified two internal threats within the Philippines. They are the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG). The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) is the foundation from which both of the groups started. Both organizations are predominantly located in the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) covering Sulu, Mindanao, and Palawan located in the southern Philippines. It is important to understand what the problem is and where it began in order to be able to defeat it. The original settlers in Mindanao were Muslim and tribal residents. In the 1950s, the Philippine government gave away land to migrants and poor farmers from other regions of the country. Christian settlers began populating Mindanao in large numbers which soon caused problems with the original inhabitants. The Muslim and tribal residents felt as though their way of life, land, and economic opportunities were being deprived. This grievance led to intense distrust between the Philippine government and the indigenous Muslim population. This eventually led to the birth of the MNLF within their region. The MNLF was founded in 1972 by Nur Misuari who was a professor at the University of the Philippines. This political organization was established in order to secede from the Philippines and establish an Islam state which would cover Sulu, Mindanao, and Palawan. The MNLF stated that represented the Philippine Muslim liberation movement which proceeded to start the Islam Insurgency in Mindanao. They intended to achieve independence, or at a minimum local autonomy for the southern Philippines. The movement would later cost both sides great amounts in personal sacrifice. There were many lives lost during this insurgency with estimates ranging from 80,000 to 200,000 in total. Eventually the Philippine government would hold peace talks in 1976 with the MNLF which led to the Tripoli Agreement being negotiated. The Tripoli Agreement basically set up a cease fire as well as autonomy with a broad understanding that Mindanao would remain part of the Philippines. This agreement would allow Muslims their own legislative assembly, economic and financial systems, schools, administrative system, executive council, courts, and special regional security forces (Muslim Mindanao for journalists and other communicators, 2008). The cease fire eventually hurt the MNLF more than it helped due to the internal factionalism which led to the group fragmenting into separate elements. There were disagreements within the organization on how to deal with the government. The more conservative members wanted to hold a violent insurgency while the liberal side favored non-violent opposition which led to a separation. The conservatives eventually left and organized into the MILF. The MILF is the largest Islamic liberation organization in the Philippines with an estimated 15,000 active members, out of which 2,900 are troops. Salamat Hashim formed the MILF in 1977 and was backed by the ethnic Maguindanaos. Hashim received support from Egypt after the split and officially established the MILF on March 1984. Hashim didnt want to accept treaties with the government and he wanted an Islamic education system in a more traditional manner. The MILF would experience the same issues later with the more extremist members leaving and forming the ASG (Economic expert.com 2010). The ASG is a more radical organization which splintered from the MILF because they too didnt agree with the way their mother organization dealt with the government. The ASG was founded by Abdurajak Janjalani in 1991 on the island of Basilan. Janjalani fought in Afghanistan against the Soviet Union with the mujahedeen. The Abu Sayyaf task force was created in 1986 by an Afghan professor named Abu Sayyaf who operated his own guerrilla training school in the mountains near Peshawar, Pakistan (Barreveld, 2001). After returning to the Philippines, Janjalani formed the ASG to fight for an independent Islamic state in the southern Philippines. Janjalani named his group after his professor in Peshawar: Abu Sayyaf-the Father of the Sword (Barreveld, 2001). In 1998 Abdurajak Janjalani was killed by the local police in Lamatan, Basilan during a shoot out. This caused a power struggle within the organization which led to his younger brother Khadafi Janjalani eventually taking over. The government refers to them as bandits primarily because of their thug like activities. This organization is famous for kidnap for ransom operations, piracy, operating with Al Qaeda (AQ), attacking the Catholic community by conducting abductions of teachers, nuns as well as priests. They have extorted from wealthy businessmen and companies and have terrorized their community through bombings and massacres. Militant organizations like the ASG and the MILF operate in the Sulu archipelago and easternmost island of Mindanao, where a rugged terrain, weak rule of law, sense of grievance among the countrys Muslim minority, and poverty make it difficult for the government to root them out (Bhattacharji, 2009). Both groups are considered threats against the Republic of the Philippines. The United States considers them a threat because of their ties with AQ and global terrorist organizations. The United States and the Philippine government signed a treaty of general relations between the two governments on July 4, 1946. This treaty identified the independence of the Philippines as of July 4, 1946 as well as recognizing the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippines. In February 1987, the Philippines adopted a new constitution that instituted the presidential-style republican form of democracy, which resembles the U.S. model much more than the European parliamentary system (Library of Congress, 2006). The Philippines has a centralized form of government and federal rule of law which is supreme to the states or provinces. There are other organizations in the Philippines government that mirror the U.S. such as their military. The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) is made up with four branches of service consisting of Army, Navy Air Force and Marines. In total the AFP has approximately 150,000 military personnel forces and about half of which are reserves (Global security.org 2010). The AFP Army has a Light Reaction Battalion (LRB) trained in counter terrorist operations and is used often in combat today. The LRB was developed, equipped, and trained by U.S. Army Special Forces. The Philippine governments gross domestic product exceeds $160 billion; however they spend less than 1% of their GDP on military expenditures. Aside from the LRB most of the AFP is under equipped and poorly funded. The United States and the Philippines have a mutual defense treaty that has been in effect since 1952. Total U.S. military assistance to the Philippines rose from $38 million in 2001 to $164 million in 2005, which would make the Philippines the fourth largest recipient of U.S. foreign military assistance (Library of Congress, 2006). The U.S. is supporting the Philippines government by providing for their military. This coincides with how we are conducting Irregular Warfare (IW) when considering the Trinity model. There are other areas that need to be addressed in the Philippines as well. Economic growth in the Philippines has averaged 4.5% per year since 2001. Despite this growth, poverty worsened during the term of Macapagal-Arroyo, because of a high population growth rate and inequitable distribution of income (Central Intelligence Agency, 2010). Thirty three percent of the Philippine population lives below the poverty line. This leads to corruption and crime which drains resources available to further develope the government. It will also undermines confidence in the government from the population. The Republic of the Philippines has an extreme problem with crime and corruption at all levels because of poverty and lack of education across the country. This effects the governments ability to take care of the relevent populations critical needs. The Muslims in the Philippines consist of thirteen ethno-linguistics groups. The Muslims who traditionally inhabited Mindanao, the islands of Basilan and Palawan, and the Sulu and Tawi-Tawi archipelago in the south of the Philippines identify themselves as Bangsamoro (Lingga, 2004). Christian Malays make up over ninety percent of the total population, Muslim only make up about four percent, Chinese 1.5 percent, and others 3 percent (Library of Congress, 2006). Muslims are often treated like second class citizens because of their minority status. This is part of the reason why they want independence in the ARMM. The Constitution guarantees freedom of religion and separation of church and state, but Christianity predominates, and Muslims historically have been marginalized (Library of Congress, 2006). The Philippine population communicates in many languages; however English and Filipino (based on Tagalog) are the official languages spoken with eight other major dialects. There are additional barriers or obstacles the country has to deal with because of this. This leads into how they communicate across the Philippines. Cell phones are the primary method of communications in their country. The Philippines is known to be the text messaging capital of the world. Digital phones currently outnumber the landlines based telephones. It is very common for the military to use their cell phones as a means of communication during operations. This has the potential for compromise during missions, which causes their commanders to collect phones from the soldiers before theyre briefed on the details of the operation. The lack of education in the southern Philippines reduces the necessity for newspapers or magazines to be sold. The Philippines government will use billboards, posters, and the radio to communicate their message to the local population in Mindanao. Additionally, they also use the mayors and village leaders by word of mouth system through the military. As an archipelago, the Philippines have more than 1,000 ports, of which 117 are regarded as international ports. About 12 of the 117 international ports have major cargo and passenger terminals (Library of Congress 2006). The ports in the southern Philippines need upgraded to support the fishing industry. Sixty percent of the roads are unpaved and the rest are in need of repair to some degree. The infrastructure needs upgraded in order to support and build on the local economy. It is critical to address the political, military, economic, social, information, and infrastructure (PMESII) issues listed above. The Muslims will support the government and work against the insurgency when their basic needs are being taking care of. This will in turn bolster the countries internal stability and will ensure that they have legitimacy and influence over the relevant population. The U.S. realized how serious and evolving the global terrorist threat was after 9/11. The Philippines is an ideal location for AQ to establish training camps, safe havens as well as recruitment base. Conditions for recruitment are perfect when there is a lack of education; bad economy, and there is a lack of support from the government. The U.S. goal is to eliminate or contain extremist Muslim terrorists organizations across the globe. The U.S. will do this in order to preserve our four enduring national interests which are security, values, prosperity, and international order. The following paragraphs will explain the recommended way to defeat the terrorist threats. In order to do this in Mindanao both the U.S. and Philippines government will need to look at the whole of government (WOG) concept and use the four elements of national power which are diplomatic, informational, military, and economic (D.I.M.E). Irregular Warfare (IW) is predominantly the U.S. way ahead when looking at combating the insurgency. To be successful, IW will need to be applied at all three levels of war. At the Strategic Level both countries will need to develop and fund plans to eventually gain control and influence over the relevant population. This is done at the national level and with ideally SOF elements used as the primary tool to get initial ground truth information to the decision makers. The U.S. deployed SOF forces into Mindanao in 2002 and are still conducting FID operations in the area today. The U.S. government will need to continue to monitor the status and make changes as necessary. The more indirect approach will be the focus when looking at the Operational Level. There is a Joint Special Operations Task Force (JSOTF) established in Zambowonga which takes the guidance and end state from the Strategic Level and applies it to tactical operations. The JSOTF is responsible for planning and conducting operations and campaigns. The enlisted staff positions needs to be filled with operators that have experience and ideally graduates of the Joint Special Operations Force Senior Enlisted Academy (JSOFSEA). The next level that IW would be applied is the Tactical Level. First Special Forces Group currently has a Special Operations Task Force (SOTF) on the island of Jolo. The SOTF is currently being run by a company rather than a battalion. This is due to the other requirements that need to be met in other countries. The Tactical Level is the most critical for numerous reasons. This is where the plans come to life in order to meet the National Strategic Strategy (NSS). Whatever the operator does on the ground will either support the NSS or possibly hurt it. The U.S. military are conducting Foreign Internal Defense (FID) operations in the southern Philippines as part of the Operation Enduring Freedom-Philippines (OEF-P). They will need to continue to provide military assistance by training through, by, and with the AFP. As part of Operation Enduring Freedom-Philippines, U.S. military forces are strengthening the Philippines military and using civic action to drive a wedge between rebels and the Muslim populace (Crisis Group, 2008). Philippine military and law enforcement agencies conducted intensive Civil-Military and internal security operations to eliminate terrorist safe havens in the Sulu Archipelago and central Mindanao (U.S. Department of State, 2009). Many of the programs that have been put in place are currently working. The economic development programs need more support from other countries. The Japanese government has been the largest provider of financial aid for Mindanao, having financed 166 different projects valued at a total of 363 million dollars since 2002 (Carames, et. al., 2008). The U.S. needs to work with other countries in order to get more participation in this area. The enticement or need to join the terrorists organizations will decrease if the jobs are available and the infrastructure is built up on the island of Mindanao and the ARMM. The State Departments USAID will need to continue to retrain combatants from the MNLF, MILF, and ASG as well as providing micro-grants in order to bolster the economy. USAID as well as civilian non-government organizations (NGOs) will need to continue to work on infrastructure development. This is critical to the success of the campaign. When schools, roads, wells, and mosques are repaired the quality of life is dramatically improved. In conclusion eradicating the insurgency means an end to the silent discrimination, respect for the Muslim religion in all its aspects. In order to minimize or stop the threat and terrorist activities we must attack ideological and financial angles as well. Developing the economy, infrastructure and improving education in Mindanao will win over the local populace faster than using military force. This must be done in order to protect the Philippines national interests. The U.S. will continue to have an invested interest in the Philippines so that we can prevent Mindanao from becoming a safe haven and training ground for Muslim extremists across the globe.

Clock Arithmetic :: essays research papers

Clock Arithmetic The topic of time has always been one of interest to me at least on a philosophical basis. Through the works of Einstein, ancient timepieces and calendars such as Stonehenge, and even theories on past and present, time is everywhere. I chose this topic to perhaps explore further the relevance of clocks and timepieces in mathematics and arithmetic. To gain a better understanding of the mathematical features of time would be rewarding knowing that philosophy and mathematics are closely related. Through what I’ve seen in clock arithmetic the concepts could be taught and applied as early as first grade due to the nature of addition and subtraction involved. Clock Arithmetic is also used for technological reasons. Computer games are manufactured using clock arithmetic to base a character’s position due to the resolution of the screen on a certain axis. Example: Suppose you are playing a video game and the character in the game (let's call him Max) is walking from the left side of the screen to the right side. Max gets to the right side of the screen and keeps walking; he disappears and reappears on the left side of the screen again. If the screen is 12 inches wide and we are keeping track of how far Max is from the left side of the screen, then as soon as he is 12 inches from the left side it's as if he was back at the beginning again. If you put it pictorially, against a clock you’d find that Max would start and end up at the same point. Now I’d like to downgrade and put things in an elementary perspective. If it is 3 o'clock and we add 5 hours to the time that will put us at 8 o'clock, so we could write 3 + 5 = 8. But if it is 11 o'clock and we add 5 hours the time will be 4 o'clock, so we should write 11 + 5 = 4. Now everyone knows that 11 + 5 =16, but there is no 16 on the clock (unless you're on military time). Every time we go past 12 on the clock we start counting the hours at 1 again. If we add numbers the way we add hours on the clock, we say that we are doing clock arithmetic. So, in clock arithmetic 8 + 6 = 2, because 6 hours after 8 o'clock is 2 o'clock.

Descriptive Essays - The Good Old Truck :: Descriptive Writing Examples

The Good Old Truck    My dad bought his red Dodge Dakota truck in 1995. When he got the truck it had already hit a deer and two cows. Since he has owned it, its value has gone down considerably, even though he has spent more money fixing it than he paid for it. If it was worth as much money as it has cost to keep it running we could sell it and buy a new car. It is red with a stripe down one side-- yes, only one side, the other side has no stripe, I have no idea why this is. There is also a huge dent above the right hind wheel that occurred when a horse tried to jump in the back of the truck. The new, improved, revamped bumper is bent slightly down from the deer and other things that it has hit.    The back of the truck is mostly full of my dad's horse shoeing stuff. It is in no way neat or in any kind of arrangement. There are always empty horseshoe boxes piled to the brim. Underneath the boxes, balls of twine are entangled in old non-usable horseshoes. If you get inside of the truck, you enter a whole different place than the outside world. Notice that I said if you get in; what I mean by this is you can't get in through the passenger side unless someone opens it from the inside. The driver's side door doesn't open all of the time, and when it does you can't possibly slam it hard enough to get it to shut all of the way. Most of the time the passenger side is overheaped with trash, mostly empty pop bottles and cans. Inside it usually smells like horses. My dad shoes horses for a living, so the smell is on him and then is transferred to the seats and anything else that he touches. Also, he keeps his apron in the cab of the truck and it definitely smells like horses. Once in a while when I get in, I get a sniff of a mixture of vinegar and dust. The smell of vinegar comes from the homemade fly spray that my dad makes, and the smell of dust is from all of the dirt that is that has gathered in the corners on the dash. Once I finally get past the aroma of the truck I proceed to turn the key and hope it will start.

aristotle :: essays research papers

In my opinion the consequences of our actions should play as a reminder in our effort to assess what is ethical behavior and what is not. It can be said as a reminder because, individuals may learn from their actions. The consequences of their actions are either ethical or not. Therefore, every time the individuals look back to their actions, they will remember whether the actions have left them a good result or not. Thus, they will create a habit that may help them to make choices on whether their actions are ethical or not. According to Aristotle’s theorizing of agency, there is a link between ethics and the idea of responsibility to actions performed voluntarily. Based on this explanation, individuals can actually choose their actions assessing which behavior is ethical and which one is not. Individuals live according to moral virtue, which means that they are involved in choosing actions properly. However, there is a moral question that keeps coming up, which is how the individuals choose the right course of action in any given situation. Human beings are both rational and passionate creatures. With their intelligence and emotion or desire, human beings make their decision. They realize that they have a natural function to choose what they think is right and wrong to obtain the â€Å"supreme Good.† More over if a human being follows his or her rational principle, he or she will reach the idea of a good life. The definition of a good life may be different for everyone. However, based on the Aristotle’s ethical theory, it is said that a good life is reached when individuals have fulfilled their proper natural function. There are two modes of thoughts whereby the practical mind apprehends variable, contingent truths. They are: art or technical skill and prudence or practical wisdom. The art of technical skill is the state where an individual make something with the involvement of true course of reasoning. With this skill, individuals can choose and make their decision with reasoning. Therefore, the effort of assessing what is ethical and what is not is made with this skill. Prudence or practical wisdom is where the individuals choose practical actions that are conducive to the sorts of goods. This is also where the individuals decide to take actions that are either good or bad for them. aristotle :: essays research papers In my opinion the consequences of our actions should play as a reminder in our effort to assess what is ethical behavior and what is not. It can be said as a reminder because, individuals may learn from their actions. The consequences of their actions are either ethical or not. Therefore, every time the individuals look back to their actions, they will remember whether the actions have left them a good result or not. Thus, they will create a habit that may help them to make choices on whether their actions are ethical or not. According to Aristotle’s theorizing of agency, there is a link between ethics and the idea of responsibility to actions performed voluntarily. Based on this explanation, individuals can actually choose their actions assessing which behavior is ethical and which one is not. Individuals live according to moral virtue, which means that they are involved in choosing actions properly. However, there is a moral question that keeps coming up, which is how the individuals choose the right course of action in any given situation. Human beings are both rational and passionate creatures. With their intelligence and emotion or desire, human beings make their decision. They realize that they have a natural function to choose what they think is right and wrong to obtain the â€Å"supreme Good.† More over if a human being follows his or her rational principle, he or she will reach the idea of a good life. The definition of a good life may be different for everyone. However, based on the Aristotle’s ethical theory, it is said that a good life is reached when individuals have fulfilled their proper natural function. There are two modes of thoughts whereby the practical mind apprehends variable, contingent truths. They are: art or technical skill and prudence or practical wisdom. The art of technical skill is the state where an individual make something with the involvement of true course of reasoning. With this skill, individuals can choose and make their decision with reasoning. Therefore, the effort of assessing what is ethical and what is not is made with this skill. Prudence or practical wisdom is where the individuals choose practical actions that are conducive to the sorts of goods. This is also where the individuals decide to take actions that are either good or bad for them.

The Art of public speaking Essay

Chapter 1: Speaking in public Power of Public Speaking Greek Pericles: one who forms a judgment on any point but cannot explain it clearly might as well never had thought at all on the subject† Public speaking is consistently rated high on employers lists The Tradition of Public Speaking Historical people who used speaking effectively Similarities and Differences in Public Speaking and Daily Conversation Similarities Organizing your thoughts logically Tailoring your message to your audience Telling a story for maximum impact- building up your story Adapting to listener feedback Differences Speaking to groups is very highly structured Strict time restrictions Most don’t allow for question interruptions (must plan for and anticipate questions that might arise in listeners mind) Public Speaking requires more formal language No slang jargon bad grammar or curse words Highly structured Public Speaking requires a different method of delivery Proper posture, no vocalizing fillers for times ( uhh, urm, ehh) and avoid distracting mannerisms (hand talking) and verbal habits Developing confidence: In your speech class  40 % of people said public speaking was worst fear Everyone gets nervous at speaking, great speakers use this to help their speech Focus on transforming nervousness to one of positive nervousness ( controlled nervousness that helps energize a speaker for their presentation) Tricks to turn nervousness from negative to positive Get experience in speaking- the more you do it the les scary it will be  because its not new and threatening Be prepared- 1- hours for every minute spoken Pick topics that are close to you Think Positively: 5 positive thoughts for every negative one Visualize you speaking well You don’t look as nervous as you think Public Speaking and Critical Thinking Critical Thinking- focused organized thinking about such things as the logical relationships among ideas, the soundness of evidence and the difference between fact and opinion The Speech Communication Process Speaker Be enthusiastic for people to be engaged in your speech Message Have and intended message that will be actually be communicated Keep a narrowed topic Be aware of the message you are sending with your voice, appearance, gestures, facial expressions and eye contact. Don’t let your non verbal cues distract from your intended message Channel- the means by which a message is communicated by Listener-person receiving spoken messages Frame of reference- the total of the listeners knowledge, experience, goals, values, and attitudes Because the speaker and listener will never have the same meaning of a speech itll carry a different meaning for each of them Feedback- messages sent for listener to speaker Interferencee- anything impeding the communication of the message Extental- outside distracting noises or situations Internal- distractions cominmg from the inside of a listner Situation-time and place communication is going down Taioloring a speech to the context of the event (graduation, funeral, church) Public Speaking in a Multicultural World Language is the biggest barrier betweent difference in cultures Enthocentrisim- belief that ones own culture is superior Chapter 2: Ethics and Public Speaking The Importance of ethics Guidelines for ethical speaking Make sure goals are ethically sound Just because your ethical background makes you for an issue someoe who mamkes a descision against you based on their ethics doesn’t make them wrong Be fully prepared for a speech Be prepared because you not only was your time if you speak badly but you waste the individuals in the audiences’ times as well. Be Honest Hiding the truth to protect the vast community isn’t unethical but lying to protect yourself is Don’t juggle statistics, quote outa context, misrepresenting sources, painting tentative findings as finite, citing unique situations as normal representation or substitute innuendo and half-truths for proof Avoid Name calling and abusive language Name calling- the use of stereotypical labels meant to degrade and dehumanize and silence opposing sides. Using such language is a destructive social force and will also make your audience doubt you entire speech and message Plagiarism- passing off someone else’s work as your own without credit Global Plagiarism- copying an entire document or speech verbatim Patchwork Plagiarism- piecing together more than one document and passing of as your own. Can have some transitions but a vast majority is completely copied Incremental Plagiarism- failing to give credit to an author of a quotation or paraphrase of ideas Ways to stop accidental plagiarism Take note of title of document Group/person responsible for the document Date document was last updated Date site was accessed Guidelines for ethical listening Be courteous and attentive Avoid prejudging the speaker Maintain free and open expression of ideas Chapter 3: Listening Listening is Important Listening- pay close attention to and making sense of what we hear Good listening improves efficient, sales, customer satisfaction and employee morale Effective listening correlates to higher grades Listening and Critical Thinking Types of listeners Appreciative listening- listening for pleasure or enjoyment Music movies comedy Empathic listening- listening to provide emotional support for a speaker Friends, family, psychiatrist Comprehensive listening- listening to understand the message of a speaker Class room lecture, listening to directions Critical listening- listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or rejoicing it Sales pitch, campaign speeches, sermons Four Causes of Poor Listening Not Concentrating Letting your mind wander and not focus on what is being said Listening too hard Trying to remember insignificant amounts of information verses the speakers main points Jumping to conclusions Instead of waiting for answers just assuming the worst and going with it Marking a speakers message as unimportant before even giving them a chance Focusing on delivery and personal appearance How to become a better Listener Take Listening Seriously Be an Active Listener Give your undivided attention to the speaker to genuinely try and understand their point of view Resist distractions Try anticipate what the speaker might say Review what the speaker has already said Don’t be Diverted by Appearance or Delivery Suspend judgment Until you hear the entire speech Set aside your own prejudices, frames of reference and desires to fully  appreciate what the speaker is trying to get across A closed mind is an empty mind Focus your Listening Listen for Main Points Listen for evidence Matched up with the main points to support them Questions to ask about evidence Is it accurate? Is it taken from objective sources? Is it relevant to the speaker’s claims? Is it sufficient to support the speaker’s point? Listen for technique Take note of any speakers techniques of delivering the speech to better your own speech techniques Developing good note taking skills Focus on important main points The key word outline- outline that briefly notes a speakers main points and supporting evidence in rough outline form Chapter 4: Giving Your First Speech Preparing Your Speech Developing your Speech Focusing Your Topic Don’t try and cover everything Stick to the time limit Developing Your Topic Be creative Only use humor if it comes natural and doesn’t offend any one Organizing the Speech Introduction Grab the interests of the audience Orient audience with subject matter of speech Body Organize either chronologically or topically Use effective transitions Limit and focus number of main points Conclusion Relate back to intro without restating Signal that you are concluding End strongly Delivering your Speech Speaking Extemporaneously (appears conversational) A hybrid between writing the whole speech and writing nothing Uses a brief structured outline but uses spontaneity to help fill in the gaps Rehearsing the Speech Presenting the Speech Starting Relaxed natural posture Look confident Plant your feet keep natural small gestures Eye contact Very important and will impress audience Voice Use inflections; don’t go over bored; don’t sound monotone Projection is key SLOW DOWN Chapter 5: Selecting a Topic and a Purpose Choosing a Topic Topics you know a lot about Draws from your own experiences and knowledge Think unusual and unique to you Topics you want to know more about Something you are interested in but have little knowledge in without research Something you have very strong opinions in Brain Storming Personal Inventory Write everything about you( hobbies, experiences, likes, opinions, everything) and decide where to go from there Clustering Make nine lists of about 4-5 entries (people places things events processes concepts natural phemonoms problems and plans) From that big list pick 3-4 entries that interest you and free- associate those out until you get a  unique interesting speech idea Internet Search Scan an online web site based encyclopedia like thing for possible topics Determining the General Purpose To inform Acting like a teacher giving a lecture To persuade Acting like a partisan or advocate Determining the Specific Purpose Narrow down into 1 sentence Tips for formulating the Specific purpose statement Write the Purpose as a complete sentence Express your purpose as a statement, not as a question Avoid Figurative Language Limit to one idea Make sure purpose isn’t vague/ general Phrasing the Central Idea Chapter 6: Analyzing the Audience Audience-Centeredness Important questions Who am I speaking to What do I want them to know/believe/or do as a result of my speech What is the most effective way to compose my speech to get this aim Your classmates as an audience The psychology of audiences People are egocentric and only care about what they are going to get from a speech Your audience will only grasp concepts in their frame of reference Demographic audience analysis Age Each generation has similar general values and experience that shape them differently from the rest Gender Men and woman are not alike in their beliefs so take account of that Religion Sexual Orientation Be inclusive and avoid derogatory terms like lifestyle and homosexual Race, ethnic and cultural Backgrounds Group Memberships BASICALLY BE GENERAL AF AND DON’T STEP ON ANYONES TOES EVER BCZ PEOPLE ARE SENSITIVE Don’t try to fully change their viewpoints just open their minds Situational audience analysis-audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as size physical setting and the disposition of the audience to the speaker, topic, and occasion Size Larger=more formal Size effects.. Language Choice of appeals Visual aids Physical setting Disposition toward the topic Things that effect the likelihood your audience will be captivated Interest Knowledge and interest goes hand in hand Knowledge Attitude Disposition toward the speaker Talk about things you are an expert on and definitely stay away from things you cant relate to Disposition toward the occasion Don’t go against the norm of typical speeches recognized at such occasions Getting information about the audience Adapting to the audience Chapter 7: Gathering Materials Using your own knowledge and experience Doing library research Resources you should use Librarians Catalogue Reference books Encyclopedias Yearbooks Quotation books Biographical aids Newspaper and periodical databases Academic databases

Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Essay

The modern republics of Poland and Lithuania had been once been a single, strong nation known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This commonwealth was established in 1569. Although there were other states in the commonwealth, none of them was as powerful as Poland. The nation was on the brink of success when the rest of Europe was ravaging in the famous thirty years war between 1618 and 1648. The Commonwealth noblemen had no desire to get involved in these wars and they were able defend the country against external attacks from the Germans, Russians and the Ottoman Turks (TLK). However, the commonwealth’s supremacy and stability did not last for long and there already were clear signs of decline by the mid 17th century. The main cause of the decline was wars that were fought within and outside the commonwealth. Thus, the weakened state could not hold itself together after these wars which ultimately led to its partition. The decline of Poland was basically evincible in the legislative body – Sejm. The divergent systems of the parliament grew ineffective and inefficient at a time when the deputies went verbal asserting â€Å"Liberum Veto† which gave them excessive power over national resolutions. The country’s population had decreased by big proportions as a result of wars. This made it practically impossible for the nation to succeed in its wars against other nations, though they were able to defeat the Ottomans at Vienna. This was the last success realized by the commonwealth military (Davies 24). The Szlachta (noblemen) also diminished in their ability to influence others and consequentially depreciated in military vigor. In a myriad of situations they became impotent and viewed â€Å"veto† as the only remaining legislative symbol within the commonwealth (25). The Decline of the Commonwealth In 1648, the warlike Cossacks, with the support of Russia, upstaged a rebellion against Poland. Thus the Russians began to influence the affairs of the country. Later in 1655, the Commonwealth was involved in another war with Sweden, provoked by the policies of Commonwealth kings from the Swedish royal House of Vasa. The Swedes installed Stanislaw Leszczynski as king. However, they were defeated by the Russians in 1709 and this resulted in the reinstatement of Augustus on the throne (TLK). Augustus was at conflict with parliament and this lead to a civil war in 1717. The Russians responded by reducing the powers of the Sejm, who by now were at the centre of running Poland, came to the rescue of Augustus. This resulted in Poland being forced to cut down the size of her standing army. When Augustus died in 1733, Leszyski returned to the throne. This move was met with resistance from the Russians who forced him out and made Fredrick Augustus, a son to Augustus, king instead. Another blow to the commonwealth was the Saxon rule that lasted for sixty years. It drove the nation to the edges of lawlessness, devastating it even more. A powerful alliance between Russia, Prussia and Australia ensured that Poland’s legal system and maintain ace of order was paralyzed. The three nations formed the â€Å"Alliance of the Three Black Eagles† owing to the fact that all the three had eagles, black in color, on their coat-of-arms (Kjaergard 121). The Partitioning of the Commonwealth By the 18th century, the Commonwealth could not handle the many internal problems that were plaguing it and this made the fragile nation more vulnerable to external influences. The political system was in shambles and this soon culminated to the schism of the commonwealth. The country was partitioned in three stages by the neighboring Russian, Prussian, and Austrian powers (TLK) . The first partition was in 1772, when the Commonwealth lost 733, 000 square kilometers of land together with about four million people. Russia took most of the land while a majority of the population went to Austria. The Sejm ratified the partition agreement despite much resistance from the state’s deputies. After the first partition, there was a period of relative stability that saw to the development of a better education sector in the country. There was a rise in the number of professionals in various fields. The king initialized a healing programme, which was executed by the â€Å"Great Sejm†. The Four Year or Great Sejm came up with a new constitution (Domar 56). â€Å"Liberum Veto† was abolished under the newly formed constitution, changing how the country was governed. people were guaranteed personal freedom and more liberty was enhanced. England, France and the United States hailed the newly formed constitution. On the other hand, this step was viewed as a threat by the rulers of Austria and Russia. This led to a wide instigation of large numbers of magnate under the leadership of Branicki Ksawery, Potocki Szczesny and Rzewuski Seweryn. This was a betrayal of the commonwealth hence leading to the formation of the Targowica Confedaration in disrespect to the declarations of the newly formed constitution (Kjaergard 122) The second partition was as a result of Russian invation. The troops from Russia decided to cross the borders and immediately war broke out. Joseph Poniatowski who was the King’s nephew together with Kosciuszko Tadeusz, a supporter of the American Independence War, erected a vehement resistance although all confidence was crushed after the Prussians joined the fighting. Many people, who would otherwise have been citizens, ran away to other countries. In 1793, Prussia and Russia were obliged to sign the Second Partition Treaty. This led to about About This led to holding in of more than half of the entire nation with a population of about four million people. Later, there was a meeting at Grodno composed mainly of the Sejm which deliberated on the legal processd to make legal the process of partitioning of the country. After the partitioning, there was widespread discontent within the general population (Kostrowicka 34). The final partition in 1795 was the most devastating. A lot of Poles were evicted from their country. The King was seized and taken to prison in St. Petersburg. Other people were sent to the harsh cold deserts of Siberia and thousands more fled to other lands. Conclusion Although Poland’s history is one full of turmoil, a lot can be learnt from it. It is clear that good governance policies should be in place for a country to run smoothly. The heads of state should at the fore front providing the much needed leadership to citizens of their countries. If the Polish constitution had had good policies, and if the leaders were competent enough, then maybe the history of the Poles would be much different and better than it is.